Reading Time: 4 minutes

The subjunctive is the most elegant mood of the Italian language, and at some point you need to at least be able to identify it when you hear it. If you can also use it correctly, then you will be well on your way to fluency. This article will introduce all you need to know on the Italian subjunctive mood.

What is the subjunctive mood?

What is the subjunctive mood – il congiuntivo? Il congiuntivo congiunge – the subjunctive joins two clauses. Most of the times (but not always!), you will find it in a dependent clause, a statement that is connected to another one by the conjunction (congiunzione) CHE, that or which.

For example:

Penso che Jannik Sinner sia bravissimo.

Penso —> I think, main clause

che —> that, conjunction

Jannik Sinner sia bravissimo —> Jannik Sinner is very good, dependent clause.

The verb SIA in the dependent clause is present subjunctive; here it means (he) is. Look at a similar sentence:

So che Jannik Sinner è bravissimo.

So —> I know, main clause

che —> that, conjunction

Jannik Sinner è bravissimo —> Jannik Sinner is very good, dependent clause.

Here we didn’t use SIA, subjunctive, but the basic form È, (he) is, present indicative. Why? It all depends on the verb that comes before CHE. First we had Penso, I think, then we had So, I know.

The Golden Rule

Bear in mind that this is a simplification, but we can think of the matter this way: the subjunctive is the mood that expresses everything that is subjective – uncertainty, possibility, fear, doubt, wish, personal opinion. A few examples:

• Possibility —> Magari oggi fosse una bella giornata! I wish today was a good day!
• Assumption —> Penso che Luca sia un medico. I think Luca is a doctor.
• Fear —> Ho paura che Sara non passi l’esame. I’m afraid Sara won’t pass the exam.
• Doubt —> Paolo è in ritardo: che abbia perso il treno? Paolo is late: could he have missed the train?

The indicative mood, instead, presents facts as true, real, certain:

• Oggi è una bella giornata. It’s a fine day today.
• So che Luca è un medico. I know Luca is a doctor.
• Sono sicura che Sara passerà l’esame. I’m sure Sara will pass the exam.
• Paolo è in ritardo: ha perso il treno. Paolo is late: he missed the train.

Alas, there are exceptions to this rule. For example, the expression secondo me, in my opinion, is followed by the indicative mood, not the subjunctive. What you really need to focus on is the verb in the main clause: some verbs must be followed by the subjunctive. Pensare, ritenere, credere, dubitare, sperare, temere, augurarsi che… are all followed by the subjunctive.

But don’t use the subjunctive all the time!

There is a rule that has no exceptions: do not use che + subjunctive when the subject of the dependent clause is the same as the subject of the main clause. For example:

Lucia thinks she is special.

Lucia is the subject of both clauses: she thinks and she is special. In Italian we cannot say: Lucia pensa *che lei sia speciale. We must use di + infinitive instead:

Lucia pensa di essere speciale.

You can find the infinitive in English as well:

I hope to understand. —> Io spero di capire. (and NOT Io spero *che io capisca.)

If the subject is different, then it’s time to use the subjunctive!

I hope he understands. —> Spero che lui capisca.

The subjunctive in independent clauses

Sometimes, the subjunctive is also used by itself, in independent clauses, usually to express a wish, a doubt, or an exhortation, or in an exclamation:

• Paolo è in ritardo: che abbia perso il treno? Here che abbia perso il treno is similar to forse ha perso il treno, maybe he missed the train, but it has more emphasis.
• Viva l’Italia! (Long live Italy!) is also subjunctive: here the word che is not expressed, but the sentence actually means Che viva l’Italia! We find this in Spanish: ¡Que viva!
• Magari fosse vero! How I wish it were true. Fosse is imperfect subjunctive, and here we use the subjunctive in English, too.

Let’s sum it all up!

• The subjunctive mood is used to express possibility, wish, fear, doubt, personal opinion. The indicative mood, in contrast, presents a fact as true, certain.
• The subjunctive is often used in dependent clauses introduced by che: Io spero che tu vinca la gara. BUT if the subject of the two clauses is the same, we use di + infinitive: Io spero di vincere la gara.
• The subjunctive is also used in independent clauses to express a doubt, a wish, an exhortation, an exclamation: Fosse vero! Viva l’Italia!
• The subjunctive has four tenses: presente, imperfetto, passato, trapassato.

Some say the subjunctive is dead. While it’s true that it is often replaced by the indicative mood in informal speech among friends and family, it’s actually very well alive and kicking, and not only in high-register written Italian. Try to identify it whenever you listen or read in Italian, and you won’t be caught off-guard when someone uses it with you.

Alla prossima!

Anna

We also wrote three articles on the subjunctive mood for our favourite website for learners of Italian, Daily Italian Words.

Related content:

• Il congiuntivo 1: Independent Clauses – VIDEO
• Il congiuntivo 2: Dependent Clauses – VIDEO
• Il congiuntivo 3: Conjunctions – VIDEO
• Il congiuntivo passato – VIDEO
• Congiuntivo o infinito? – VIDEO
• Corso A2 Lezione 19: Il congiuntivo – Patreon

Reading Time: 4 minutes

Italian has several past tenses, but the passato prossimo and the imperfetto are the two most common ones. The imperfetto does not exist in English, but it can be translated using the past simple or the past continuous. The passato prossimo is a compound tense, similar to the English present perfect, but it can also be translated with the past simple. How do we choose between one or the other?

What is the difference?

To understand the nature of these tenses, let us consider three shapes: a circle, a point, a line. We can associate a completed action to a circle, an action that took place at a precise moment to a point, and an action seen in its duration to a line.

In Italian, a completed action corresponds to the passato prossimo: 

• Ho guardato questo video tre volte. I have watched this video three times.

Here I underline the completed nature of the action; I don’t care when exactly I watched the video, or what happened while I was watching it, I care about the fact that the action was completed: a circle.

The passato prossimo is also used to describe an action that took place at a specific time: a point.

• Ieri ho guardato il video che mi hai consigliato. Yesterday I watched the video you recommended.

The passato prossimo corresponds to a circle: action completed, in general; or to a point: action completed at a specific time.

What is the imperfetto?

What about the imperfetto? This tense is imperfect, unfinished, not because the actions it describes are incomplete, but because we are interested in their duration, not in their completion. The imperfetto describes a state, a situation, an action seen in its duration: a line. We don’t care when the action began or when it ended, we are interested in the fact that the action or the state lasted for some time:

• Ieri non volevo parlare con nessuno. Yesterday I didn’t want to talk to anyone. —> Probably for the entire day.

The imperfetto is also used to talk about a past habit, a habitual, repeated action in the past, like the English “used to“:

• Da piccolo andavo al mare ogni anno. As a child I used to go to the seaside every year. —> Ogni anno, spesso, sempre are often used in this kind of sentences.

If we talk about actions that we did once or more than once, but which are not habits, we use the passato prossimo, instead:

• Sono stato a Roma due volte. I went to Rome twice. —> I went and came back: completed actions.

Instead, we use the imperfetto to talk about a state or a continuous action in the past:

• Nel 2010 vivevo a Roma. I was living in Rome in 2010. —> Past continuous.

• Ieri ero di cattivo umore. Yesterday I was in a bad mood. —> My bad mood lasted for some time.

Can we use both tenses in the same sentence? Yes, if we have an action that interrupted another one, for example:

• Mentre dormivo ho sentito un rumore improvviso. While I was sleeping I heard a sudden noise. —> Imperfetto for the continuous action of sleeping, passato prossimo for the sudden noise.

When talking about the past, the conjunction mentre, while, is always used with the imperfetto. Quando, when, can use both:

• Quando ero all’università sono andato in Cina. When I was at university I went to China. —> I went to China while I was at university.

• Quando mi sono laureato sono andato in Cina. When I graduated I went to China. —> First I graduated, then I went to China.

Another use of the imperfetto that is becoming increasingly common is the imperfetto ipotetico. Here the imperfetto is used in a conditional sentence instead of more complex compound tenses:

• Se lo sapevo, non venivo. 

In standard Italian, this sentence would be:

• Se lo avessi saputo (congiuntivo trapassato), non sarei venuto (condizionale passato). If I had known it, I wouldn’t have come.

Conclusion – When to use the imperfetto

This is just the tip of the iceberg, but it should give you a sense of the difference between imperfetto and passato prossimo. The imperfetto is a powerful tense that we use a lot in conversation, so it’s important to keep it in mind as an option when you need to talk about the past.

Use the imperfetto to describe people, places or situations in the past; to talk about a state of mind or a physical state in the past; to describe things you used to do or that you did for some time; to talk about actions that took place at an unspecified time, or something that was going on when something else happened.

Ask me questions in the comments if you have any, and watch our video lessons on these tenses for more examples and exercises.

A presto!

Anna

We also discuss the choice between imperfetto and passato prossimo, in more detail and using different examples, on Daily Italian Words.

Related video lessons:

• L’imperfetto
• Il passato prossimo
• Imperfetto o passato prossimo?

Reading Time: 4 minutes

What is all the fuss about essere and avere in Italian? Why do we bring up this topic so often in our grammar lessons? Essere and avere have their own meanings, be and have, but they are also used to form compound tenses.

What is a compound tense? The English present perfect, for example: I have done. Have is an auxiliary here, it helps or supports the verb to do. English has many auxiliaries, but to form compound tenses it uses have. In Italian, instead, we can use have, avere, or be, essere. So we say Io ho fatto and Io sono andato. We cannot say *Io ho andato, it would sound awful! But how to choose? There are a few rules that can help us remember.

Regola! The basic rule is that transitive verbs always form compound tenses with avere: 

• Ho organizzato una mostra al museo e ho fatto tutto io. I set up an exhibition at the museum and I did it all myself.

Una mostra and tutto are the objects of organizzare and fare, respectively, therefore these are transitive verbs that form compound tenses with avere.

Now, what is a transitive verb? It’s a verb that makes the action transition to a direct object. There is something or someone that receives the action of the verb. How to figure out if a verb is transitive? If our sentence answers the question “Chi?” or “Che cosa?”, who or what, we have a transitive verb, and we form compound tenses with avere.

Io leggo un libro. I read a book. This is the present tense.

Io leggo – che cosa? – un libro.

Libro is the object, so leggere is transitive, the passato prossimo is:

Io ho letto un libro. Auxiliary avere. Easy.

You might end up thinking that intransitive verbs, those that cannot take an object, always use essere. Yes and no, it depends on the type of verb.

Regola! Intransitive verbs describing a physical or mental activity take avere: ho respirato (I breathed), ho pensato (I thought), ho parlato (I spoke).

What about essere? Essere indicates a state, and these types of verbs take the auxiliary essere: sono stato.

• Sono stato molto impegnato con il lavoro. I have been very busy with work.

Regola! So, remember: among the verbs that usually take essere are those that indicate a state of being or the result of a process, such as rimanere and restare (stay), diventare (become), nascere (be born).

• Paolo Sorrentino è nato a Napoli, io sono nata a Bologna. Paolo Sorrentino was born in Naples, I was born in Bologna.
• Dove sei stata ieri? Sono rimasta a casa. Where were you yesterday? I stayed home.

So, there are two main rules to keep in mind:

1. Transitive verbs take avere.
2. Verbs that indicate a state of being or the result of a process usually take essere.

Regola! Let’s move on and add one more piece to the puzzle: the vast majority of verbs of movement also take essere, so a sentence like: yesterday I went to Venice in Italian is Ieri sono andata a Venezia.

Andare is a verb of movement, so we have to use essere: io sono andata, Luca è andato, le ragazze sono andate and so on.

You may have noticed an additional complication here: when the auxiliary is essere, the past participle agrees with the subject. Luca, masculine singular: è andato; le ragazze, the girls, feminine plural: sono andate. This does not happen with avere.

Now, this rule seems simple enough, but watch out! A few verbs of movement take avere, such as camminare and viaggiare, so we say ho viaggiato and ho camminato. Rule of thumb: when the verb indicates only a movement, the auxiliary is avere; when it expresses a movement from a place or to another, then it takes essere. Compare:

Sono partita ieri (even if the place is not expressed, I must have come from somewhere), ho viaggiato tutta la notte e sono arrivata a casa alle 16.00. I left yesterday, I travelled all night and I got home at 4pm.

Compare again: Ho corso per due ore – I ran for two hours (here I’m focusing on the movement) and Sono corsa a casa – I ran home (here I have a destination). Correre can take both avere and essere, and it’s not the only verb that can do this!

Regola! Now, to cheer you up, let’s add a rule that’s always true: reflexive verbs always take essere. These are verbs whose action reflects on the subject or something that belongs to it, like alzarsi and lavarsi:

• Marco si è alzato alle sette. Marco got up at seven.
• Io mi sono lavata i denti dopo colazione. I brushed my teeth after breakfast.
• I ragazzi non si sono lavati le mani. The boys did not wash their hands.

What about the weather? Freedom! For weather verbs, use either essere or avere:

• Ha piovuto tutta la notte. / È piovuto tutta la notte. It rained all night.

• Ieri è nevicato. / Ieri ha nevicato. It snowed yesterday.

Finally, we need to remember that some verbs are not intrinsically transitive or intransitive, but can be used in one way or the other: they may have an object or not, such as cominciare, finire, iniziare, terminare, vivere, aumentare, cambiare. For example:

• Il professore ha cominciato (transitive use) la lezione (direct object).
  The professor started the lesson. Transitive verbs form compound tenses with avere.
• La lezione è cominciata (intransitive use, no direct object).
  The lesson started. Intransitive verbs form compound tenses with essere.

Let us sum it all up:

How to remember all this? Learning the rules is a good starting point, but you also need to read and listen to as much Italian as you can, paying attention to auxiliaries when you read your favourite Italian magazine, Italian website, or when you listen to your favourite Italian TV programme. This way, you will naturally pick up these patterns. Ultimately, you will figure out what sounds right and what sounds wrong. And whenever in doubt… check the dictionary! It will tell you which auxiliary to use.

A presto!

Anna

Related video lessons:

• Il passato prossimo – Essere o avere?
• Common uses of essere and avere in Italian
• Learn Italian with Art 3 – Essere o avere?